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Drugs and the Environment

2022-09-28

This year's United Nations World Drug Report highlights for the first time the nexus between illicit drugs and the environment. In view of climate change, it is time to feed the debate with facts and make drug policy greener.

The cultivation of coca plants or cannabis has a strong negative impact on the environment, for example by burning land.©Getty Images, 2019

By Jorrit Kamminga

Dr. Jorrit Kamminga is a political scientist specialising in the nexus between security and development. He holds a PhD in International Relations from the University of Valencia in Spain. As a consultant, he worked on UNODC's World Drug Report in 2015 and 2022, as well as for the Global Partnership on Drug Policies and Development (GPDPD).

All contributions

For a long time, illicit economies were mainly discussed as a security problem with social and developmental consequences. The fact that illicit cultivation and production of coca, opium poppies and cannabis also harm the environment has only come into focus through the growing debate on climate change. This year's World Drug Report includes a special booklet on the link between illicit drugs and the environment. Illicit drug economies exploit people and the environment, especially in the global South. For millions of marginalised small-scale farmers, the illegal cultivation of coca, opium poppy and cannabis is a matter of survival. The report first establishes the link between drugs and environmental degradation in the context of the Sustainable Development Goals, climate change and ecological sustainability, and then provides a detailed look at environmental impacts.

According to recent UNODC estimates, the cultivation areas of coca and opium poppy alone together cover half a million hectares. This is a small part of the total land used for food crops, but still significant in terms of local effects. Abundant water, fertilisers and pesticides are used to cultivate these crops. The smallholders often live in isolated marginalised regions far from any infrastructure or state presence. Most coca is grown in the Andean region. There, farmers plant the bushes on small plots in national parks and forest reserves - ecosystems that are particularly fragile and worthy of protection. After harvesting, the coca leaves are processed on site, using chemicals such as petrol, sulphuric acid, potassium permanganate, sodium hydroxide and acetone. Because production is illegal and there is correspondingly no infrastructure for disposing of the toxic waste, it ends up unfiltered in the environment.

Illicit cultivation and deforestation

In the Amazon regions, we have seen a huge loss of primary forests in recent years. Unsustainable agricultural practices and illegal logging are the main reasons for deforestation. But the illicit cultivation of coca also contributes to this - directly and indirectly.

Coca cultivation is considered the so-called spearhead of the agrarian frontier: the cultivation of the shrubs is accompanied by the expansion of settlement and agricultural land in actual protected areas.

Indirectly, the consequences of coca cultivation are particularly strong: the World Drug Report 2022 refers, among others, to a study from 2020 that shows how money laundering activities of the drug trade contribute to the loss of forests. The study looked at how land use was changing in a Mayan biosphere reserve in Guatemala. It found that cattle ranching was responsible for most of the deforestation in the reserve. In almost all cases, it could be shown that this was directly linked to drug trafficking organisations that invested in cattle ranching for money laundering, drug smuggling or territorial control.

The CO₂e footprint of illicit drugs

Measuring the greenhouse gas emissions caused does not make the ecological footprint of drug production any better. Studies on the carbon footprint of cocaine and cannabis production show that the emissions of drug production can be significant.

While the CO₂e footprint of coca cultivation is still relatively small, that of cocaine is enormous.

The production of one kilogramme of cocaine releases the same amount of carbon dioxide as when a passenger car drives 2,358 kilometres - i.e. once across Europe.

The cultivation of cannabis leaves an even larger CO₂e footprint. This is mainly because the plant is grown indoors. Indoors, light, heat and ventilation have to be generated artificially.

The CO₂ footprint of indoor cannabis cultivation ranges from 2,300 to 5,200 kg CO₂e per kilogram of dried cannabis flower. This corresponds to a car journey of up to 20,000 kilometres.

For outdoor cannabis cultivation, the estimates are much lower, ranging from 22.7 to 326.6 kg CO₂e per kilogramme of dried cannbis flower. Compared to a cup of coffee, the environmental impact of a joint whose raw material has flourished indoors is much higher.

Political responses and Alternative Development projects

For decades, the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) has been working for sustainable income alternatives in drug crop cultivation areas. In this context, the environmental aspects of drug markets and drug policies are elementary. Alternative Development approaches, through which small-scale farmers are empowered to break away from illicit economies and develop legal and sustainable income opportunities, are becoming increasingly green.

For example, an ongoing Alternative Development project in Myanmar promotes the sustainable cultivation of coffee and avocado, combined with reforestation efforts and sustainable handicrafts. In Chiang Rai, Thailand, an Alternative Development project focusing on sustainable forest management aims to reduce CO₂ emissions by 106,788 tonnes over a 17-year period (2016-2033). Similarly, payments for environmental services have been integrated into an Alternative Development project in forest reserves in the Valle del Cauca, Colombia. Farming families protect the forest and the quality of the water supply, and in return receive payments for their environmental services and technical support to grow crops more productively. This has led not only to environmental recovery but also to an increase in household incomes by an average of 42%.

Especially against the backdrop of severe biodiversity loss and global warming, these examples show the potential of Alternative Development projects.

Green drug policies are forward-looking, as they achieve vital results in terms of income generation and the protection of natural resources.

First steps on a long but vital road

The World Drug Report 2022 uses concrete examples to show how environmental and drug policies can interact. The publication of the special booklet is thus one of many right steps towards a future-proof drug policy that supports sustainable and environmental-friendly rural development.

You can read more about here, or on the website about Alternative Development.

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Women in colorful attire sift grains under a sunny sky, engaging in traditional agriculture. | © GIZ Joerg Boethling

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Earth’s well, all’s well!

A Contribution by Fairtrade Germany

With the annual topic "Earth’s well, all’s well!", Fairtrade Germany is focusing on the concept of agroecology at all levels - and is thus taking the next step towards achieving greater global sustainability. At the Green Week trade fair, Fairtrade Germany will show how this can be achieved taking the cocoa supply chain as an example.

Sowing change

A Contribution by Brot für die Welt

Roughly 800 million people suffer from hunger worldwide. Change is needed - for people and for the environment. Brot für die Welt reports on the starting points offered by everyone's ecological footprint and handprint.

A Call to Action against Desertification

A contribution by GIZ

Every second, worldwide, we lose valuable and healthy soil with the size of four football fields. This was only one of the many facts being presented to a wide audience in Bonn and worldwide via livestream at the World Desertification and Drought Day on 17th June 2024. This was the 30th anniversary of the United Nations Convention on Combatting Desertification (UNCCD), which was celebrated at the Bundeskunsthalle in Bonn.

A group of diverse professionals stands together at a CAADP event, with a presentation screen in the background.

African Union sets the Way for the Future

A Contribution by GIZ

From January 9 to 11, 2025, heads of state and government of the African Union met in Kampala, Uganda. With a clear vision and concrete measures, the Kampala Agenda aims to make the continent's agricultural and food systems climate-resilient, fair and future-proof by 2035.

Delegates sit around a large conference table at the Global Forum for Food and Agriculture, discussing sustainable practices.

Bioeconomy: Ready for a Joint Take-Off?

A Contribution by GIZ

The bioeconomy movement is fundamentally changing agriculture and food production: through innovative ideas, environmentally friendly approaches and the realization that we need to work together globally to ensure that change truly benefits everyone. At this years’ German Forum for Food and Agriculture (GFFA), the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) focused on this topic.

Participants engage in discussions during the SOILution P4C conference, with speakers addressing the audience from a stage.

Elevating Soil Health for a Sustainable Future

A Contribution by Kah Walla

In May, this year's "Partners for Change – SOILutions for a Food Secure, Resilient, and Sustainable Future" conference took place. Kah Walla, Moderator of the Conference and Director of Strategies!, summarises the discussions and declares that healthy soils are not just the foundation of agriculture, but the cornerstone of a resilient, equitable, and climate-smart future.

Young corn plants grow in neat rows across a lush field under a cloudy sky, showcasing sustainable farming techniques.

COST-BENEFIT ANALYSES FOR MORE SOIL CONSERVATION

With the help of sustainable farming methods, soils can be preserved and made fertile again. The investment required is also worthwhile from a financial perspective.

A project of GIZ

Women in a vibrant Ghanaian market smile while selling fresh tomatoes and peppers at their colorful stall.

Small-scale farmers’ responses to COVID-19 related restrictions

A study by SLE

The lockdown due to COVID-19 hit the economy hard - including agriculture in particular with its supply chains and sales markets. What creative coping strategies have those affected found? The Seminar for Rural Development has begun a research study on th

Förderung einer nachhaltigen Landwirtschaft, Burkina Faso. Foto: Aude Rossignol, GIZ

Building our food systems back better

A contribution by Jes Weigelt and Alexander Müller

What is required to make food systems provide sufficient, healthy food while not harming the planet? How should food security be maintained given the threat posed by climate change? Our authors look at some aspects of tomorrow’s food systems against the backdrop of the corona crisis.

One Health – What we are learning from the Corona crisis

A contribution by Dr. May Hokan and Dr. Arnulf Köhncke (WWF)

Due to the coronavirus crisis, the connection between human and animal health has gained new attention. Politicians and scientists are joining forces to propagate the solution: One Health. But what is behind the concept? And can it also guarantee food security for all people worldwide?

A small roadside shop with colorful signage stands under a clear blue sky next to a parked truck.

The state of food security in Cape Town and St. Helena Bay

A study by Markus Hanisch, Agustina Malvido, Johanna Hansmann, Alexander Mewes, Moritz Reigl, Nicole Paganini (SLE)

Post-Covid-19 lockdown: How food governance processes could include marginalised communities - an extract of the results of an SLE study applying digital and participatory methods.

A person wearing a face mask and red headband stands in a dusty environment with particles floating around. — Worker in the rice mill Labana Rice Limited in Birnin Kebbi / Nigeria. © Thomas Imo, GIZ

Not waiting for a savior

An article by Lidet Tadesse

While Africa is the least affected region by Covid-19 so far, the number of confirmed cases and deaths on the continent is quickly rising. Despite the challenges many African countries continue to face, the African response to the coronavirus pandemic displays innovation and ingenuity.

ICTforAg 2022: Conference

An Initiative by GIZ Fond i4Ag

In March 2022, the virtual conference ICTforAg summons leading actors in the agrartechnology and food sector from low- and middle-income countries to exchange ideas advancing resilience, nutrition and agriculture-led growth.

World Soil Conference ends with resolutions on drought management and land restoration

A contribution by GIZ

At the UNCCD COP15, the nearly 200 Parties met in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire. A key goal is to halt the loss of fertile soils by 2030.

A herd of cattle walks along a rural road under a clear sky, guided by herders.

Our Food Systems are in Urgent Need of Crisis-Proofing: what needs to be done

An Artikel by TMG

Based on a scientific study by TMG Think Tank, the authors highlight various challenges in the fight against the hunger crisis. The findings show that climate change, conflict and covid-19 are increasing food and energy prices.

5 Questions for Jann Lay: What is Corona doing to the economy?

Interview with Jann Lay (GIGA)

The Corona pandemic is hitting economies around the world very hard - but developments in African countries are quite diverse. There are different speeds, resiliences and vulnerabilities. What are the reasons for this? Apl. Prof. Jann Lay of the GIGA Institute provides answers.

A woman in a colorful dress and hat works with a hoe in a vast, barren field under a cloudy sky.

Farmers' organizations want to be involved in designing agricultural policy

An interview with Kolyang Palebele

Four interviews kick off the relaunch under the new name „Food4Transformation“, asking the same questions from different perspectives. "Women and young people need access to land. And they need financial support to cultivate this land." - says Kolyang Palebele, President of the Pan African Farmers Organisation (PAFO).

From field to fan shop: how to increase supply

A contribution by Jan Rübel

Organic cotton is extremely popular – but farmers still find it difficult to change their conventional cultivation methods. A new project addresses this dilemma: Bundesliga football teams in Germany are promoting the switch to organic cotton in India. And thereby setting an example.

Lush green hills stretch across the Chunati Wildlife Reserve in Bangladesh, showcasing vibrant natural beauty. | © GIZ

Working with nature for diversity in farming, climate protection and empowerment

Ein Beitrag von Friederike Bauer

Germany joins the international Agroecology Coalition, reinforcing its commitment to fair, sustainable agriculture and ensuring the future viability of rural areas. By adopting a holistic approach, agroecology is helping to address the greatest challenges of our time: protecting the climate, combating hunger and preserving biodiversity.

A person is watering plants in a rural field with a metal watering can, surrounded by greenery and trees.

Circular Economy: From Innovation to Upscaling

A Contribution by the Project RUNRES

Recycling organic waste into soil amendments and animal feed through a transdisciplinary approach – this is what the RUNRES project, launched in four sub-Saharan African countries four years ago, seeks to achieve. Three of the project's scientists report.

A woman in a pink headscarf and floral dress stands confidently in a lush garden. | © Claudia Jordan

Stick together and learn from each other

By Claudia Jordan

During the Women Leadership Programme in May 2024, around 20 women from African countries and Germany met again for a one-week workshop in Bavaria, Germany to become fit for leadership in their organisations. One topic that concerns the women across countries is climate change, but also violence against women and their discrimination in agriculture.

A vibrant assortment of speckled pink beans fills the frame, showcasing natural variety and texture.

The untapped potential of protein diversification

A Contribution by Ivo Rzegotta

Diversifying our protein supply to include plant-based foods and cultivated meat can be a game-changer for climate mitigation and climate adaptation, especially in the countries of the Global South. However, a great deal of research is still required to capitalise on this potential. And political support, as Ivo Rzegotta, Good Food Institute, demonstrates.

A woman sorts cocoa beans in a wooden tray, wearing a colorful floral shirt and traditional patterned skirt.

"We didn't even make it halfway"

Interview with Claudia Brück and Torben Erbrath

The demand for fair-trade cocoa is growing – but how is the industry responding? In an interview, Claudia Brück, Executive Board Member of Fairtrade Germany, and Dr. Torben Erbrath, Managing Director of the Federal Association of the German Confectionery Industry, discuss progress as well as challenges, and why real change can only be achieved through long-term commitment along the entire supply chain.

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Drugs and the Environment

By Jorrit Kamminga

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